Interactive Model: Classical Conditioning
Explore Pavlov’s three-phase model of learning through association, where a new response is learned by pairing two stimuli. The learner is passive and the response is involuntary. Click through the phases to see the process unfold.
Initially, the bell produces no relevant response, while food naturally causes salivation.
Operant Conditioning: The A-B-C Model
Explore Skinner’s three-phase model where voluntary behaviours are shaped by their consequences. The learner is active. Click the tabs to see how different consequences strengthen or weaken a behaviour.
Positive Reinforcement
Add a desirable stimulus. (e.g., getting pocket money for chores).
Negative Reinforcement
Remove an aversive stimulus. (e.g., taking a painkiller to remove a headache).
Observational Learning: Bandura’s 5 Stages
Bandura proposed we learn by watching others (models). This is a social-cognitive process that bridge behaviourist and cognitive theories. Hover over each stage to understand its critical role.
Foundational Models of Memory
Psychologists have developed models to explain memory’s architecture. Explore how our understanding has evolved from a simple structural model to more complex, process-oriented frameworks.
Atkinson-Shiffrin Multi-Store Model
This foundational model proposes three sequential memory stores. Click on each component to learn about its function, capacity, and duration.
Baddeley & Hitch’s Working Memory Model
This model replaced STM with an active “workbench”. Hover over the components to see their specific roles in processing information.
Central Executive
Phonological Loop
Visuo-spatial Sketchpad
Episodic Buffer
The Brain & Memory: An Interactive Map
Different types of memories are processed and stored in specific brain regions. Hover over the key areas in this simplified diagram to discover their crucial roles in memory formation and storage.
Enhancing Memory: Mnemonics
A mnemonic is any technique used to improve memory. They work by linking new information to existing knowledge, facilitating deeper encoding. Here’s a comparison of common techniques.
Techniques in Written Cultures
Often used to memorise abstract, decontextualised lists.
- Acronyms: Pronounceable words from first letters (e.g., VCAA).
- Acrostics: Memorable phrases where first letters are cues (e.g., King Phillip Came Over…).
- Method of Loci: Associating items with locations on a familiar route (a “memory palace”).
Techniques in Oral Cultures
Complex, multimodal systems that embed knowledge in context.
- Songlines (Aboriginal Peoples): A sophisticated system linking knowledge (navigation, law, history) to landmarks on Country through narrative, song, and dance. Provides powerful, context-dependent retrieval cues.
Reconstructive Memory: Loftus & Palmer (1974)
Memory is not a perfect recording; it’s actively reconstructed and can be altered by post-event information. This seminal research by Elizabeth Loftus demonstrated how a leading question could distort an eyewitness’s memory.
Participants watched a film of a car accident and were asked about its speed using different verbs. The chart below shows how the verb’s intensity influenced speed estimates, demonstrating the **misinformation effect**.
In a follow-up, those asked with the verb “smashed” were more likely to later falsely recall seeing broken glass.
Theories of Forgetting
Why do we forget? Psychologists propose several explanations for why we fail to retrieve information from memory. Click on each theory below to reveal its core concepts and examples.
Forgetting occurs because of a failure to use the right cues to access a memory that is still available. It explains the ‘tip-of-the-tongue’ phenomenon. Cues can be **context-dependent** (external environment) or **state-dependent** (internal state).
Forgetting occurs because other memories disrupt retrieval.
• Proactive Interference: Old memories interfere with new ones (e.g., writing last year’s date).
• Retroactive Interference: New memories interfere with old ones (e.g., a new password makes you forget the old one).
Forgetting occurs because the physical memory trace fades over time through disuse. This theory is best applied to sensory and short-term memory, as many long-term memories can last a lifetime, even without regular use.
